Kerusi Afrika (African Chair)

Bukti arkeologi terawal tentang alat duduk di Afrika adalah dari Igbo-Ukwa di Tenggara Nigeria. Pengesanan kayu daripada bangku-bangku ini menunjukkan radio karbon yang bertarikh abad ke-19. Sebilangan bangku batu telah pun muncul di Ife, Tenggara Nigeria walaupun tiada dalam konteks arkeologi. Kerusi-kerusi zaman klasik dipercayai telah diterbitkan antara abad ke-12 hingga ke-15 dan tiada bukti jelas yang menunjukkan alat duduk ini digabungkan dengan kepimpinan. Walaubagamanapun, bukti arkeologi yang lain membuktikan bahawa bangku ini mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam alat kebesaran kepimpinan.

Oleh kerana bangku Afrika lebih kepada keaslian dan pembangunan Afrika, maka terdapat pengaruh yang besar terhadap kerusi stail Afrika – Eropah. Orang Portugis telah memperkenalkan kerusi siku ( elbow chair) kepada Gold Coast pada awal tahun 1481. Bentuk kerusi ini dengan segeranya telah diiktiraf oleh orang Afrika sebagai simbol kuasa dan prestij. Maka, kesimpulannya muncullah penerangan awal tentang Afrika Barat yang mengandungi rujukan kepada kerusi Eropah. Kebanyakan kerusi Afrika berbeza dari segi kayu dan kulit.

Orang Afrika tidak mempertimbangkan kersui dan bangku bagi penggunaan biasa untuk duduk bersama keluarga dan kawan. Di Afrika, bangku dan kerusi dipertimbangkan sebagai objek personal tertinggi dan kebanyakan orang Afrika terkejut apabila kawan, saudara atau orang asing menggunakan kerusi sebagai alat duduk. Di kalangan orang Akan, bangku mempunyai peranan yang penting dan sifat yang suci. Orang Ashanti pula berpendapat bahawa bangku dipertimbangkan untuk personal yang tinggi dan dipercayai menempatkan roh pemilik. Apabila tidak digunakan, bangku akan dicondongkan ke tepi supaya tiada tenaga lain boleh menggunakannnya dan mencemarkan roh pemilik. Bangku seseorang ketua , mempunyai kepentingan tertentu sebab ia mengandungi roh keua dan dipertimbangkan sebagai Tuhan Raja. ( Divine King).

Kumpulan lain yang menyatakan maksud simbolik untuk alat duduk ialah orang Lega. Terdapat alat duduk kepunyaan Lega seperti bangku kaki tiga dan kaki empat yang tidak digabungkan dengan kepimpinan ataupun upacara amal. Bangku Lega dipanggil sebagai bangku Kisumbi yang juga merupakan bahagian yang perlu dalamm permulaan persatuan Bwami. Terdapat upacara yang dikenali sebagai upacara Kisumbi, di mana bangku dijadikan sebagai simbol sentral. Bangku Kisumbi dianugerahkan kepada lelaki apabila dia mencapai tangga kedua tertinggi dalam masyarakat Lega.

Kebanyakan babgku prestij di Afrika tidak semestinya digabungkan dengan upacara amal atau memberikan definisi peranan lelaki dalam masyarakat. Kebanyakan alat duduk menggambarkan moral dan nilai yang dipegang oleh ahlinya. Terdapat beberapa jenis bangku yang menggambarkan peranan wanita dalam masyarakat. Bangku Caryatid dirujuk sebagai bangku pembawa yang telah dijumpai di seluruh Tenggara Zaire, dan mempengaruhi Luba dan Hemba. Status tinggi wanita dalam masyarakat Luba telah digambarkan dalam bangku Caryatid. Kebanyakan bangku Caryatid menggambrakan wanita dan ibu sebagai lebih daripada pemberi hidup. Di setiap kampung, tempat duduk caryatid menunjukkan semua kuasa kembali kepada raja Luba dan menerusi beliau diberikan kepada wanita yang merupakan sumber hidup.

HISTORY OF BICYLE IN TIMELINE

HISTORY OF BICYLE IN TIMELINE:

1418
Giovanni Fontana built the first human powered land vehicle -- it had four wheels and used an endless rope connected via gears to the wheels.

1493
Sketches showing a primitive version of a bicycle, purported drawn by Leonardo da Vinci, surfaced in 1974. Further examination of the drawings indicates these are not by da Vinci's hand. The speculation that these are a sketch by a pupil after a lost drawing by da Vinci is also considered false. An age test was performed, but the library in Milan (belonging to the Vatican) conceals its negative outcom.

1791
Comte de Sicrac is credited with building the "celerifer" - purportedly a hobby horse with two wheels instead of a rocker. This is now considered a patriotic hoax created by a French historian in 1891. It was debunked by a French researcher in 1976. In fact, a Jean Sievrac (!) of Marseille obtained an import price for a four-wheeled speed coach called celerifer in 1817.

1817
Variously called the running machine, velocipede, Draisienne and dandy horse, it was invented by Karl Drais, in response to widespread starvation and the slaughtering of horses, the consequence of a crop failure the year before (caused by the eruption of Tambora). It had a steer-able front wheel. This is the first appearance of the two-wheeler principle that is basic to cycling and motorcycling and minimizes rolling resistance. The velocipedes were made entirely of wood and needed to be balanced by directing the front wheel a bit. People then did not dare to lift the feet off safe ground, therefore the velocipedes were propelled by pushing off with the feet. After the good harvest in 1817 riding velocipedes on sidewalks was forbidden worldwide, since the velocipeders used the sidewalks, and because they could not balance on the rutted carriageway, the fad passed. It took nearly 50 years, until a roller-skating boom created a new public with a better sense of balance.

1839
Another entry in bicycle lore: Kirkpatric Mcmillan, a Scottish blacksmith adapted a treadle-type pedals to a bicycle, is considered a hoax, see the David Herlihy's book.

1863
Bone Shaker or Velocipede: Made of stiff materials, straight angles and steel wheels make this bike literally a bone shaker to ride over the cobblestone roads of the day. The improvement is a front wheel with peddles -- direct drive, fixed gear, one speed. This machine was known as the velocipede ("fast foot"), but was popularly known as the bone shaker, They also became a fad, and indoor riding academies, similar to roller rinks, could be found in large cities.

1870
Ordinary: These are better know as the "high wheelers". It is more comfortable to ride than its predecessor, but it requires an acrobat so they popularity has always been limited. This was the first all metal machine to appeared. (Previous to this metallurgy was not advanced enough to provide metal which was strong enough to make small, light parts out of.) The pedals were still attached directly to the front wheel with no freewheeling mechanism. Solid rubber tires and the long spokes of the large front wheel provided a much smoother ride than its predecessor. The front wheels became larger and larger as makers realized that the larger the wheel, the farther you could travel with one rotation of the pedals. You would purchase a wheel as large as your leg length would allow. These bicycles enjoyed a great popularity among young men of means (they cost an average worker six month's pay), with the hey-day being the decade of the 1880's. Because the rider sat so high above the center of gravity, if the front wheel was stopped by a stone or rut in the road, or the sudden emergence of a dog, the entire apparatus rotated forward on its front axle, and the rider, with his legs trapped under the handlebars, was dropped unceremoniously on his head. Here the term "taking a header" came into being. This machine was the first one to be called a bicycle ("two wheel").

1872
Friedrich Fischer (German) first mass-produces steel ball bearings, patented by Jules Suriray in 1869.

1876
Browett and Harrison (English) patent an early caliper brake.

1878
Scott and Phillott (English) patent the first practicable epicyclic change-speed gear fitted into the hub of a front-driving bicycle.

1879
Henry J. Lawson (English) patents a rear wheel, chain-driven safety bicycle, the “Bicyclette” (his earlier models were lever driven).

1880
Thomas Humber (English) adapts the block chain for use with his range of bicycles.

1880's
While the men were risking their necks on the high wheels, ladies, confined to their long skirts and corsets, could take a spin around the park on an adult tricycle. These machines also afforded more dignity to gentlemen such as doctors and clergymen. Many mechanical innovations now associated with the automobile were originally invented for tricycles. Rack and pinion steering, the differential, and band brakes, to name a few!

1880
Bicycle Activism: Good roads society organized by bicyclist and lobbied for good roads -- paving the way for motor vehicles!

1884
Thomas Stevens struck out across the country, carrying socks, a spare shirt and a slicker that doubled as tent and bedroll. Leaving San Francisco at 8 o'clock on April 22, 1884, he traveled eastward, reaching Boston after 3700 wagon trail miles, to complete the first transcontinental bicycle ride on August 4, 1884. After a pause, he continued east, circumnavigating earth, and returning to San Francisco on Dec 24, 1886. See Around the World by Bicycle, 2000 reenactment of 1884 ride, and 2006 reenactment of 1885 ride.

1888
Pneumatic tire: First applied to the bicycle by an Irish veterinarian who was trying to give his sickly young son a more comfortable ride on his tricycle. This inventive young doctor's name was Dunlop. Now that comfort and safety could be had in the same package, and that package was getting cheaper as manufacturing methods improved, everyone clamored to ride the bicycle.

1890
Safety Bike: As the name implies the safety bike is safer than the ordinary. The further improvement of metallurgy sparked the next innovation, or rather return to previous design. With metal that was now strong enough to make a fine chain and sprocket small and light enough for a human being to power, the next design was a return to the original configuration of two same-size wheels, only now, instead of just one wheel circumference for every pedal turn, you could, through the gear ratios, have a speed the same as the huge high-wheel. Initially, the bicycles still had the hard rubber tires, and in the absence of the long, shock-absorbing spokes, the ride they provided was much more uncomfortable than any of the high-wheel designs. Many of these bicycles of 100 years ago had front and/or rear suspensions. These designs competed with each other, your choice being the high-wheel's comfort or the safety's safety, but the next innovation tolled the death of the high-wheel design -- pneumatic tires. This is basically the same design as standard contemporary bikes. The safety bike allowed large numbers of people to take up cycling. Bikes were relatively expensive so use was somewhat restrict to the elite.

1890
Mass Production: The bicycle helped make the Gay Nineties what they were. It was a practical investment for the working man as transportation, and gave him a much greater flexibility for leisure. Women would also start riding bicycles in much larger numbers.

1894
Change In Social Order: Betty Bloomer's bloomers become very popular. Ladies, heretofore consigned to riding the heavy adult size tricycles that were only practical for taking a turn around the park, now could ride a much more versatile machine and still keep their legs covered with long skirts. The bicycle craze killed the bustle and the corset, instituted "common-sense dressing" for women and increased their mobility considerably. Victorian women cyclists. American Music and women bicyclists. Women and bicycles.

1894
The bicycle messenger business started in California when a railway strike halted mail delivery for the Bay Area. An ingenious bicycle shop owner in Fresno came up with the idea to deliver it by bicycle. He set up a relay between Fresno and San Francisco, with 6 riders covering about 30 miles each. The last rider would cover 60 miles.

1894-95
Annie Cohan (a.k.a. Annie Londonderry) bicycles around the world. Scant information has her leaving Boston in June 1894 on her Sterling bike and finishing her ride in Chicago in Sept 1895.



1895
Ignatz Schwinn and Adolph Arnold formed Arnold, Schwinn & Company to produce bikes.

1896
"Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel. It gives woman a feeling of freedom and self-reliance." Susan B Anthony

1898

1899

1900
Major Taylor was the American cycling sprint champion, and he topped all European champions as well. Taylor was one of the first black athletes to become a world champion in any sport. (Taylor is celebrated in Andrew Richie's book Major Taylor: The Extraordinary Career of a Champion Bicycle Racer, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.) See also: The Major Taylor Association, The Major Taylor Society and The Major Taylor Velodrome.

1903
Internal hub gears invented by Sturmey Archer. By 1930 these were used on bikes manufactured around the world. There dominance lasted until the 1950s the parallelogram derailleur was introduced. See also Sturmey Archer Bicycle Hubs.

1920
Kids Bikes: The focus of planning and development of the transportation infrastructure was the private automobiles. Bicycles use declined and the bicycle was considered primarily as children's toys. Kids bikes were introduced just after the First World War by several manufacturers, such as Mead, Sears Roebuck, and Montgomery Ward, to revitalize the bike industry (Schwinn made its big splash slightly later), these designs, now called "classic", featured automobile and motorcycle elements to appeal to kids who, presumably, would rather have a motor. If ever a bike needed a motor, this was it. These bikes evolved into the most glamorous, fabulous, ostentatious, heavy designs ever. It is unbelievable today that 14-year-old kids could do the tricks that we did on these 65 pound machines! They were built into the middle 50s, by which time they had taken on design elements of jet aircraft and even rockets. By the 60s, they were becoming leaner and simpler.

1930
Tullio Campagnolo patents the quick release hub.

1930's
Schwinn introduced the fat tire, spring fork, streamline Excelsior, designed to take the abuse of teenage boys, which was the proto-type mountain bike. The Schwinn Excelsior frames became the model for the early mountain bikes almost fifty years later.

1938
Simplex introduced their cable shifted derailleur.

1940
Women bicyclists in the French Resistance. by Rebecca G. Halbreich, published in Ex Post Facto, 1994

1950s
Tullio Campagnolo introduced cable-operated, parallelogram derailleur. Campagnolo. For two decades Campagnolo equipment dominated true racing bikes. Eventually, he acquires 135 patents.

1958
Women ride in the first-ever World Championships on the road and track. Balina Ermolaeva becomes the first women's World Sprint Champion; Elsy Jacobs takes the road race.

1962
Renaissance: President's Council of Physical Fitness. Renewed interest in bicycle for recreation and fitness. This was the seed of a new major bicycle boom that accelerated through the 60's. The "English 3-speed" was the fancy consumer model of the time. Before the end of the decade it was the 10-speed derailleur "racing bike" which dominated the American market (the derailleur had been invented before the turn of the century and had been in more-or-less common use in Europe since).

1970
Earth Day: Increased awareness of westerns civilization's level of consumption of natural resources, air pollution, and destruction of the natural environment. This generated a new spurt in the growth of bicycle sales and bicycling, especially around college campuses.

1973
Oil embargo: Fuel shortages and shifts in relative price of transportation options created an environment which encouraged bicycle commuting. Many of the new recruits to bicycling stuck to it after the end of the embargo and became enthusiasts. There was also reinvigorated interest in the engineering of bicycles, including renewed interest recumbents and fairings.

1977
The prototype of the mountain bikes were first developed in Marin Co, California, north of San Francisco. Joe Breeze, Otis Guy, Gary Fisher, and Craig Mitchell were the earliest designers, builders and promoters.

1978
A new round of steep oil prices increases further encouraged bicycling. More bikes than car were being sold in the USA. Triple chain-ring cranks had become widely available, adding to the range of situation that bicycle were practical for.

1980's
Renewed interests in health and fitness, by the middle and upper class perpetuated the acceptance and growth of commuting, recreational and touring bicycling.

1980's
Bike messengers develop should backs to carry large envelopes flat. The style migrates into general use as an alternative to back packs, ruck sacks and purses.

1980's
Aerobic exercisers take the padding out of bike shorts and use them in exercise class. The style migrates into general use -- some wearers haven't exercised in decades.

1984
Tour de France Feminine run for the first time (winner: Marianne Martin.)

1984
Women's road race included in the Olympics for the first time (winner: Connie Carpenter.) Successes by American racing cyclist in the 1984 Olympics drew attention and added prestige to cycling. The ranks of racing cyclists grew substantially.

1984
Cogs began to be added to the rear gear cluster the number of speeds increase from 15 to 18, 21 and 24.

1984
Three-time national XC champion Jacquie Phelan founds the Women's Mountain Bike and Tea Society; the first formal outreach organization for women. WOMBATS is dedicated to introducing women to mountain biking in a fun, non-competitive environment.

1990
Shimano (Japanese) introduces integrated brake/gear levers.

1994
Sachs (SRAM) introduces PowerDisc, the first mass-produced hydraulic disc brake system.

1996
Mountain Bike compete at the Olympic Games for the first time in Atlanta, GA USA.

1986
Department of the Interior and Nielson surveys show that bicycling is the third most popular participatory sport after swimming and general exercise.

2000
Rohloff Speedhub 14 speed internal hub gearing system, with no overlapping ratios and a gear range as wide as a 27-speed derailleur system.

2002
Campagnolo introduces 10 cog rear cluster, allowing 30 speed bicycles

POP ART

Seni Pop
Seni Pop ( Pop Art) merupakan pergerakan seni visual yang telah muncul pada pertengahan 1950-an di British dan selari dengan pengakhiran 1950-an di Amerika Syarikat. Artis pop memfokuskan perhatiannya atas imej-imej biasa budaya popular seperti ‘billboards’, gambar kartun dari beberapa lukisan yang sederet, pengiklanan majalah dan produk pasaraya. Penciptaan istilah seni pop selalunya dirujuk kepada seni kritik British.
Lawrence Alloway, seorang kurator telah menggunakan terma atau istilah kebudayaan massa popular dalam eseinya yang bertajuk ‘ The Arts and Mass Media ‘. Namun begitu, Alloway merupakan salah seorang pengkritik yang mempertahankan kebudayaan massa dan Seni Pop sebagai sebuah bentuk seni yang sah. Seni Pop merupakan salah sebuah pergerakan seni utama pada abad ke-21. kebudayaan massa popular telah dikategorikan kepada tema dan teknik seperti pengiklanan dan buku-buku komik.
Seni Pop secara luasnya, ditafsirkan sebagai reaksi kepada idea-idea dominant stail lukisan abstrak dan sebagai perkembangan kepadanya. Seni pop menggunakan imej popular untuk menentang kebudayaan kumpulan elit dalam seni, menekankan lemen-elemen yang tidak menarik atau pertunjukkan seni yang tidak bernilai dalam sebarang kebudayaan. Ianya juga ditakrifkan oleh artis untuk mempersembahkan teknik-teknik yang mengurangkan kepentingan ekspresif tangan artis. Seni pop selalunya mensasarkan penonton yang luas.
Kebanyakkan seni pop dipertimbangkan secara akademik sebagai organsasi luar biasa yang mengguanakan latihan yang selalunya sukar untuk difahami. Seni pop dan pengurangannya dipertimbangkan untuk menjadi pergerakan seni moden yang terakhir dan pendahulu kepada seni postmodern.

Asal
Walaupun ianya ditandakan sebagai menajamkan seni kerja mengecat dan gambaran, namun seni pop juga merupakan tindak balas kepada stail lukisan abstrak. Walaubagaimanapun, ianya merupakan penyambungan kepada aspek-aspek tertentu stail lukisan abstrak seperti kepercayaan kebolehan untuk seni terutamanya bagi kerja seni yang berskala besar. Seni pop juga adalah sambungan dan penolakan Dadaisme. sementara seni pop dan Dadaisme telah menerokai kebanyakan subjek yang sama, seni pop telah menggantikan dorongan-dorongan anarki, yang bersifat sindiran dan memusnahkan pergerakan Dada dengan pengesahan kebudayaan massa artifak yang terpisah.

Seni Pop di Amerika Syarikat
Walaupun pergerakan seni pop British mendahului Amerika, seni pop Amerika mempunyai asalnya tersendiri yang berlainan daripada seni pop British. Pada tahun 1920-an, artis Amerika seperti Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth dan Stuart Daris telah mencipta lukisan yang memberi gambaran tentang pergerakan seni pop. Lukisan mereka telah mengandungi gambaran kebudayaan pop seperti objek biasa yang dipilih daripada produk komesial Amerika dan rekabentuk pengiklanan.

Seni Pop di Sepanyol
Di Sepanyol, pembelajaran seni pop telah digabungkan dengan lukisan bentuk baru yang muncul daripada asas krisis yang tidak rasmi. Eduardo Arroyo yang mungkin boleh disesuaikan dalam fesyen seni pop mempunyai minat terhadap alam persekitaran. Kritikannya terhadap budaya media yang menggabungkan ikon komunikasi media massa dan sejarah lukisan serta perasaan bencinya telah menubuhkan stail artistik. Walaubagaimanapun, orang Sepanyol yang boleh dipertimbangkan sebagai artis seni yang sah ialah Alfredo Alcain. Ini disebabkan oleh penggunaan yang beliau buat dalam gambaran popular dan ruang kosong di dalam kandungannya.
Dalam kategori seni pop Sepanyol, “Chrinicle Team” yang muncul di Valencia antara tahun 1964 dan 1981, telah dibentuk oleh artis Manolo Valdes dan Rafael Solbes. Pergerakan mereka boleh dikategorikan sebagai pop disebabkan oleh penggunaan komik dan gambaran penerangan, serta kandungan fotografik dan imej yang memudahkan.
Pembuat filem Pedro Almodover telah mula dikenali menerusi subbudaya Madrid La Mavida pada tahun 1970-an. Beliau membuat 8 buah filem terbaik seni pop dengan belanja yang rendah dan seterusnya digelar sebagai Andy Warhol oleh media Sepanyol ketika itu. Dalam buku “Almodóvar on Almodóvar”, beliau mengatakan bahawa filem tahun 1950-an, iaitu “Funny Face” merupakan pusat inspirasi untuk kerjanya. Satu tanda perniagaan dalam filem Almodóvar ialah beliau sentiasa mengeluarkan komersial palsu untuk dimasukkan ke dalam sebuah adegan.

Seni Pop di Jepun
Seni pop di Jepun adalah unik dan boleh dikenal pasti sebagai orang Jepun disebabkan oleh stail dan subjek yang biasa. Kebanyakan artis pop Jepun mengambil inspirasi daripada ‘anime’ , ‘ukiyo-e’ dan seni tradisional Jepun. Artis pop semasa yang terrenal di Jepun ahíla Takashi Murakami dari kumpulan artis Kaikai Kiki. Beliau terrenal dengan pengeluaran massa tersendiri tetapi ianya mengandungi abstrak yang tinggi dan pergerakan seni yang unik. Beliau juga seorang yang berpegangan surrealisme, mempunyai pergerakan post-moden yang inspirasinya munucl daripada ‘anime’ dan budaya jalan Jepun. Ia bertujuan untuk remaja di Jepun dan menjadikan kesan budaza yang besar. Artis seperti Yoshitomo Nara di Jepun terkenal dengan seni yang diilhamkan dengan contengan di dinding, manakala Murakami pula terkenal dengan pengeluaran massa patung kecil plastik atau polimer. Kebanyakan artis pop di Jepun menggunakan ”surreal” atau lucah, iaituimej yang mengejutkan dalam seni mereka, yang diambil daripada ’hentai Jepun’. Elemen seni ini menarik perhatian penonto yang muda dan tua, serta mempunyai pemikiran provakasi, tetapi ianya tidak dianggap sebagai kesalahan di Jepun. Metafora biasa yang digunakan dalam seni pop Jepun adalah kemurniaan dan perihal mudah tersinggung kanak-kanak dan remaja.
Artis seperti Nara dan Aya Takano menggunakan kanak-kanak sebagai satu subjek dalam kenyakan seni mereka. Nara mencipta adegan marah melalui kanak-kanak sementara Takano pula berkomunikasi kemurniaan kanak-kanak dengan melukiskan gadis bogel.

Artis Seni Pop dari segi Pergerakan 1950-an hingga 1960-an
Seni pop adalah stail seni yang meluahkan imaginasi setiap hari yang merupakan kebudayaan pengguna kontemprorari. Sumber imaginasi yang biasa termasuk iklan, pembangunan barangan pengguna, foto selebriti dan kartun komik. Artis pop seni yang mendahului ialah Andy Warhol, Robert Rauschenberg dan Roy Lichtenstein.

Andy Warhol – Artis pop Amerika, 1928-1987
Andrew Warhola, dilahirkan pada 6 Ogos 1928, di bandar industri Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Andy Warhol terkenal dalam penerokaan seni pop, pengeluaran imej massa tentang pengeluaran objek. Hasil paling terkenalnya terpapar dalam tin sup Campbell. Warhol berjaya menukarkan imej yang dicat dengan tangan atau skrin lembut , gambar yang berbingkai dan bergantung di galeri kepada seni kiasan.
Warhol telah mengujinya dalam media seperti filem, ukiran, lukisan, skrin lembut tetapi hasil terbaiknya adalah ciptaan sendiri seperti selebriti antarabangsa dan ikon seni kebudayaan.

Robert Rauschenberg , Artis Pop Amerika 1925
Pernah melukis lebih dari 400 karya , Robert Rauschenberg yang dilahirkan pada 1925, adalah kunci utama kandungan Galeri Seni Antarabangsa yang mempunyai koleksi kertas kerja kontemporari. Pameran ini telah mempamerkan sekurang-kurangnya 60 conoth dari artis semua zaman dalam media cetak. Secara kronologi, pembangunan karya Rauschenberg, dari pemberitahuan, litograf yang dipaku dengan imej putih dan hitam kepada warna yang besar menekankan gabungan proses cetakan yang sofiskated. Beliau juga memasukkan teknik baru seperti imej digital dan mengujinya dengan kertas luar biasa, kadbod, fabrik dan plasik.
Seperti gabungan Rauschenberg yang terkenal percetakan sesuai dibuat menerusi integrasi imej dari suratkhabar, majalah dan gambar-gambar persendiriannya. Mungkin lebih dari kerja lainnya, beliau mencetak gambar selebriti yang tidak dijangka, dicipta dalam bentuk kolaboratif dan kemungkinan pemuliharaan dalam teknik mencetak.

Roy Lichtenstein - Artis Pop Amerika 1923- 1997
Seni pop adalah penglibatan dengan apa yang beliau rasa sebagai paling loyang dan watak yang mengugut dalam kebudayaan, benda yang dibenci tetapi ia juga berkuasa dalam memberi kesan kepada manusia.

BAUHAUS DIRECTORS

Since 1919 to 1938, Bauhaus was directed by 4 influenced directors in art and design. Each of them had a different vision and opinion but Bauhaus principle and concept were still remaining as the time Gropius formed the school.WALTER GROPIUS (1919 -1928):He was a German architect and the founder of the Bauhaus in Weimar. Gropius had a working experience with architecture firm, Peter Behrens in 1908-1910. After 1910, he had a remarkable architecture design seminal modernist buildings, which was important and influenced the modern architecture since then. Among his prolific design in sharing with some of his colleagues including the future Bauhaus director, Ludwig Mies van de Rohe, are the Faguswerk, a last shoe factory and the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition (1914). After served in army during First World War, Gropius was appointed to be a new master of Weimar art schools, which he turned to be a new school of Bauhaus. After they moved to Dessau, Gropius took the responsibility to design the school building while the former Bauhaus student, Marcel Breuer was in charged in designing the school furnishing.HANNES MAYER (1928 - 1930):Hannes Mayer was a Swiss architect and the second director of Bauhaus. He was the former head of architecture department under Gropius leadership. After taking over the Bauhaus from Gropius, Mayer thought his students to be focused more on the social aspect of the building, concentrating on the needs of the masses rather than the needs of few who lived in luxury. Under his leadership as Bauhaus director, Mayer brought the most two significant important building commissions for the school and five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau and the headquarters of the Federal School of German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau, thus the school turned its profit in 1929. Because of political factor and his taught of Marxist doctrine would jeopardize the future of Bauhaus Gropius fired him in 1930.LUDWIG MIES VAN DE ROHE (1930-1933):As Rohe became the third director of Bauhaus, he turned the school into private institution. He was a former colleague with Walter Gropius before the formed of the Bauhaus and among the pioneering masters of modern architectures. As an educator, Rohe always used his poetic aphorisms, Less is more and God is in details. Rohe however, would not allowed any Mayers supporters to attend his private school.

THE BAUHAUS SCHOOL

In order to accomplish his idea of arts union, Gropius had his first new plan of action by merging the two Weimar art schools into one ambitious new school, Bauhaus in 1919 and he became the first director. After the Bauhaus formation as a new school in design and architecture, German politic at the same time was in crisis and turmoil gave affect to the future of the school. Bauhaus in Weimar only lasted until 1925 when Gropius announced the closure of the school. It was caused by the political struggle between Social Democrats Party and Nationalist Party. The leftist Social Democrats Party was Bauhaus patron whos funding all the school maintenance. By losing its power to the Nationalist Party, that will be mean no funding to the school for the new party was anti and considered Bauhaus as a school of leftists and running leftist programmed.However, the Social Democrats Party in Dessau was still in control had offered Gropius a piece of land in their authority to rebuild the Bauhaus school with its own facilities. Only in a year the new building was ready to be used but in 1932, again, Bauhaus was force to leave their building and moved to Berlin.Bauhaus was finally closed by force of the Nazi regime in 1933. The Naziwho take control of German politic at that time were holding fascist doctrine and anti to the leftists including the Bauhaus education programmed. The Nazi were opposing the Bauhaus programmed and considered the school as the front for communists.In 1937, American Association of Arts and Industries took an initiative to reform Bauhaus school in Chicago, United States and invited La¡ Moholy-Nagy to become the director. They used and developed the Bauhaus curriculum base on the German Bauhaus and employed some of the former Bauhaus staff, many of whom had left Germany due to the increasingly hostile political climate towards progressive art. However, Bauhaus school in Chicago only lasted a year.

THE BAUHAUS SCHOOL

Bauhaus was among the earliest school of design, formed in 1919 at Weimar, German. It was a school that combined all arts craft, architecture, fine art and design, in one roof. The combination of these art branches and the direction of Bauhaus first director had made them the most influential currents in modernist architecture and designs.Bauhaus, however, had a long and uneasy history since the prewar of the First World War. The convulsion of German politic at that time could not guarantee the future of this school to survive. Since 1919 to 1938, Bauhaus had to remove from a city to another because of the political straining.Before the form of Bauhaus, there were two schools of art in Weimar namely Weimar School of Art and Weimar Academy of Fine Arts. In 1915, at the end of The First World War, the master of Weimar School of Art, Henry van de Valde was instructed to step down from his position as schoolmaster due to his nationality and substituted by Walter Gropius.With the changing of schoolmaster, the school future was directed to a new dimension in art educational. Gropius art philosophy was to unite all arts into one functional object to create a meaningful artwork or design. The unity between the arts had become Bauhaus principle and most of the Bauhaus designs influenced by new abstract geometrical style.

SEJARAH PEN DAKWAT

Lewis Waterman telah mencipta pen dakwat yang pertama pada 1884. Alat tulis yang berisi dakwat telah dibentuk dan ia wujud lebih dari 100 tahun sebelum penciptaan waterman. Contohnya, pen dakwat yang ada hingga sekarang telah direkabentuk oleh seorang warga Perancis bernama M. Bion pada 1702. Peregrin Williamson, pembuat kasut telah mendapat hak cipta sebagai seorang warga Amerika yang pertama pada 1809. John Scheffer telah menerima hak cipta British pada 1819 untuk pen separuh bulu, pen separuh logam yang disasarkan untuk pengeluaran massa. John Jacob Parker telah mendapat hak cipta untuk pen dakwat berisi pada 1831. Namun, model pen dakwat yang awal telah terjejas akibat limpahan dakwat dan kerosakan lain yang menyebabkan ia tidak diguna dan sukar dijual.
Bentuk pen dakwat wujud selepas penggunaan bulu untuk beribu-ribu tahun. Pencipta awal telah membuat pemerhatian yang jelas tentang dakwat yang disimpan dalam saluran lubang bulu burung lalu cuba untuk mencipta dengan kesan yang hampir sama dengan penciptaan manusia yang boleh menahan dakwat yang banyak dan tidak memerlukan pencedokan dakwat secara berterusan. Walaubagamana pun, buluh bukanlah pen, ia benda alam semulajadi yang diubahsuai untuk kegunaan manusia. Dengan penyimpanan dakwat pen yang nipis dan panjang yang diperbuat daripada getah dan hujung pen yang melekat di bawah, tidak cukup untuk mengeluarkan alat tulis yang lembut. Lewis Waterman, jurujual insurans telah mendapat semangat untuk membaiki kelemahan pen dakwat apabila dakwat pen yang digunakannya melimpah lalu merosakan surat perjanjian dengan kliennya. Idea Lewis Waterman adalah untuk menambah lubang angina pada hujung mata pen dan alur di dalam mekanisme kemasukan.
Mekanisme digubah dengan tiga bahagian utamanya. Hujung mata pen berhubung terus dengan kertas. Bahagian pengeluaran dakwat atau bahagian bawah hujung mata pen mengawal pengaliran dakwat dari tempat penyimpanannya. Tong bulat yang memegang hujung mata pen dan mengeluarkan dakwat untuk menulis, menghalang penyimpanan dakwat dari dalam. Semua pen mengandungi penyimpanan dakwat dalaman. Perbezaan penyimpanan dakwat membuktikan ialanya salah satu kwasan persaingan yang hebat dalam industri pen. Pada awal abad ke-19, pen diguna sebagai titisan mata. Pada 1915, kebanyakan pen berubah kepada pengisian sendirian yang lembut dan penyerap getah yang mudah melentur seperti tempat penyimpanan dakwat. Untuk mengisi semula dakwat, tempat penyimpanan akan ditekan rata oleh lapisan dalaman lalu hujung mata pen akan dimasukkan ke dalam botol dakwat. Selepas itu, tekanan lapisan dalaman dilepaskan supaya penyerap dakwat dipenuhi dengan dakwat yang segar.

HAK CIPTA BERBEZA YANG DITERBITKAN UNTUK PEN DAKWAT YANG BOLEH DIISI
Pengisi Butang ( Button Filler)
Hak ciptanya pada 1905 dan mula-mula ditawar oleh Syarikat Pen Parker pada 1913 sebagai alternatif untuk kaedah titisan mata. Tambahan butang ditambah pada alat tekanan dalaman yang meratakan penyerapan dakwat apabila ditekan.

Pengisi Tuil ( Lever Filler )
Water Sheaffer mendapat hak ciptanya pada 1908. Syarikat Pen W.A Sheaffer, Fort Madison, Iowa telah memperkenalkannya pada 1912. tuil luar menekan penyerap dakwat yang mudah melentur. Tuil berisi mengepam tong pen apabila ia tidak diguna. Pengisi tuil mendapat hadiah sebagai pemenang untuk 40 tahun yang akan datang manakala pengisi butang mendapat tempat kedua.

Pengisi Klik ( Click Filler )
Mula dipanggil sebagai pengisi sabit yang diperkenalkan secara komersial oleh Roy Conklin, Toledo. Reka bentuk Syarikat Pen Parker yang kemudian menggunakan nama pengisi klik. Apabila 2 alat menonjol keluar dari pen itu ditekan, penyerap dakwat akan menjadi kempis. Alat itu akan mengeluarkan bunyi ‘klik’ apabila penyerap tersebut penuh.

Pengisi batang mancis ( Matchstick Filler )
Ia diperkenalkan sekitar tahun 1910 oleh Syarikat Weidlich. Logam bulat dan lurus yang kecil pada pen atau pada batang mancis menekan alat tekanan dalaman melalui lubang yang ada dalam tong pen.

Pengisi Syiling ( Coin Filler )
Diusahakan oleh Lewis Waterman dalam usaha bersaing dengan hak cipta pengisi tuil yang dimiliki oleh Sheaffer. Lubang kecil dalam tong membolehkan syiling untuk mengempiskan alat tekanan dalaman, yang seakan-akan seperti pengisi batang mancis.

Terdapat 9 jenis hujung mata pen yang berstandard dengan 3 hujung mata pen yang berpotongan berbeza, iaitu tegak, serong dan condong. Dakwat awal menyebabkan hujung mata pen logam menghakis dan hujung mata pen emas membantu dalam penghakisan. Iridium digunakan pada hujung mata pen halus untuk menggantikan emas yang terlalu lembut. Kebanyakan pemilik ada huruf pertama yang bercantum pada penyepit pen. Ia mengambil masa selama 4 bulan untuk mencetuskan alat tulis yang baru sejak kewujudan hujung mata pen yang direka bentuk untuk mudah melentur apabila ditekan. Setiap hujung mata pen bersesuaian dengan gaya pemiliknya. Sebab itu, orang tidak berminat untuk meminjamkan pen dakwatnya kepada yang lain.
Kartrij dakwat yang diperkenalkan sekitar tahun 1950, tidak boleh dibuang, boleh diisi semula dalam kartrij plastik atau kaca yang direka untuk tujuan kebersihan dan kemasukan yang mudah. Ia merupakan kejayaan yang serta-merta. Pengenalan pen mata bulat, memberi naungan kepada penciptaan kartrij dan mengurangkan perniagaan bagi industri pen dakwat. Pen dakwat yang dijual kini adalah sebagai alat tulis klasik dan yang asli kini menjadi koleksi yang hebat.